social dysfunctions of the student council
The poverty rate (not shown in the table) for children living with a never-married mother only is 53 percent, with a mother only 45 percent, and with both parents 13 percent. This report does not discuss Hispanics because data are insufficiently disaggregated to shed light on the socioeconomic disadvantages that many experience. As with cognitive (IQ) results, the halving of average lead-in-blood levels during the period when lead was being removed from gasoline was associated with an overall decrease of about 5 percent in the number of children with reported behavior problems nationwide.111 Higher blood lead levels of black children may partly explain findings that they have more behavior problems, on average, than otherwise observably similar whites.112, The halving of blood lead levels during that period was also associated with a 24 percentage-point decline in the likelihood of teen pregnancy. The Economic Policy Institute staff is unionized with the See note 37. From the patterns described in this report, it seems advisable for responsible policymakers to consider whether narrowing inequalities could spur larger youth outcome gains than school improvements requiring comparable spending and effort. 16 (2003): 151726. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2012. 20. Such definitions are useful but limited, missing other important social class characteristics. 130. 110. Lambert, Fugiel, and Henly, 2014. Many other states effectively block such clinics, for example with policies requiring prior authorization from the managed care organization (into which Medicaid recipients must be enrolled) for each visit made by a child to a school clinic. A child living with a never-married mother alone is therefore four times as likely to be in poverty as a child living with both parents.34, In 2003, average single-mother household income was 37 percent of married household (with children) income; even after public assistance of various kinds was included, the ratio was still only 55 percent. Public service campaigns have stressed the importance of identifying students who have a fascination with guns or violence. 30. Public health authorities measure childrens lead absorption by micrograms of lead per blood deciliter. Martin CarnoyandRichard Rothstein, What Do International Tests Really Show About U.S. Student Performance? Explanation: But the inevitable distribution of outcomes associated with a given set of social and economic background characteristics should not mislead us to the conclusion that all disadvantaged children can be above average compared to children of similar background characteristics. Raising the minimum wage and the Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) would support marriage for those who presently cannot afford it. 46. In Sociology, Functionalists argue that a school education has two functions. See note 63. David L. Olds, Harriet Kitzman, Robert Cole, JoAnn Robinson, Kimberly Sidora, Dennis W. Luckey, Charles R. Henderson, Carole Hanks, Jessica Bondy, and John Holmberg, Effects of Nurse Home-Visiting on Maternal Life Course and Child Development: Age 6 Follow-Up Results of a Randomized Trial, Pediatrics 114, no. White adults spend 36 percent more time than black adults reading to young children, and three times more time talking with and listening to them. Sixty-nine percent of hourly paid mothers of pre-teens report weekly fluctuations in work hours. See note 99. Another estimate found that in the year following a divorce, a single-mother household suffers a 40 percent income loss, with little change in subsequent years. Richard Rothstein, The Making of Ferguson: Public Policies at the Root of Its Troubles, Washington, D.C.: Economic Policy Institute, October 15, 2014, http://www.epi.org/files/2014/making-of-ferguson-final.pdf. 13 (April 5, 2013): 246 (Table 1). Student council is offered in both . Table 3 shows shares of children, by race, living with single mothers. 49. Every lead-in-blood increase of 1 microgram per deciliter is associated with a loss of about three-quarters of an IQ point up to about 10 micrograms, and a loss of one-quarter of a point for every microgram above 10.105 Using this estimate, it appears that the decrease of lead-in-blood from 16 to 3 micrograms per deciliter from 1976 to 1991, noted above, might have been responsible for an average IQ increase for American children of as much as six points. Six-year-olds from affluent families have spent 1,300 more hours in indoor and outdoor recreation, churches, businesses, and other non-school, non-home, and non-caretaker settings than children from low-income families. 1 (2007): 13956. 100. The negative outcomes were apparently set in motion when parents had worked non-standard schedules earlier in these adolescents lives. The federal tax codes child care subsidy is inadequate and its availability insufficient to enable low-wage single mothers to afford high-quality child care. Drum, 2013. Waldfogel, Craigie, and Brooks-Gunn, 2010. Amato, 2005. Julia R. Henly and Susan J. Lambert, Unpredictable Work Timing in Retail Jobs: Implications for Employee Work-Life Outcomes, Industrial and Labor Relations Review 67, no. Worker productivity could grow because of increased worker experience from longevity, or from employer decisions to invest in training, made cost-effective by higher compensation. Ultimately, to make substantial progress in narrowing gaps, school improvement should be complemented by and coordinated with amelioration of socioeconomic disadvantages. 2. 99. But while we cannot estimate the precise contribution of each disadvantage to achievement gaps, influences not attributable to schools are so numerous that policy should consider how to address them. Environmental lead peaked in about 1970 at 1.4 tons. 115. Wen-Jui Han, Daniel P. Miller, and Jane Waldfogel, Parental Work Schedules and Adolescent Risky Behaviors,Developmental Psychology46, no. The Impact of Family Formation Change on the Cognitive, Social, and Emotional Well-Being of the Next Generation. Sally C. Curtin and Joyce A. Martin, Births: Preliminary Data for 1999, National Vital Statistics Reports, vol. "The students got together and came up with the idea of a mermaid," Marciano said. 107. William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987). Rising Inequality, Schools, and Childrens Life Chances (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2011), also online appendix Table 3.A5. Greg J. Duncan and Katherine Magnuson, The Nature and Impact of Early Achievement Skills, Attention Skills, and Behavior Problems, in Greg J. Duncan and Richard J. Murnane, eds., Whither Opportunity? Children living with never-married mothers are four times as likely to be in low-income families as children living with both parents. 4. 31. Steer, M. Ellis, and A.M. Emond, Effects of Early Childhood Lead Exposure on Academic Performance and Behaviour of School Age Children,Archives of Disease in Childhood 94, no. The Affordable Care Act includes funding for visiting nurse programs, but they serve few families needing this support. Children internalize these, leading to higher achievement.26. National Center for Healthy Housing, Issue Brief: Childhood Lead Exposure and Educational Outcomes, p. 2. Anna Gassman-Pines, Low-Income Mothers Nighttime and Weekend Work: Daily Associations With Child Behavior, Mother-Child Interactions, and Mood,Family Relations 60, no. Patrick Sharkey, Stuck in Place: Urban Neighborhoods and the End of Progress Towards Racial Equality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013). First published November 1972 Pupils' Perception of Latent Functions and Dysfunctions of School Councils John A. Chapman View all authors and affiliations Volume 8, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.1177/003452377200800102 Contents Get access Get full access to this article View all access and purchase options for this article. Although public programs such as Medicaid and the Childrens Health Insurance Program (CHIP) have now extended coverage to most low-income children, they have not fully equalized access to primary and preventive care. Katherine Magnuson and Greg J. Duncan, Can Early Childhood Interventions Decrease Inequality of Economic Opportunity? Unpublished manuscript prepared for the Federal Reserve Bank of Boston Conference, Inequality of Economic Opportunity in the United States, Boston, October 1718, 2014 (p. 12 and Figure 2). See note 39. 6 (2004): 156068. Han, Miller, and Waldfogel, 2010. 27 (July 5, 2006): 1015. We will consider these in future work. 10 (2007): 111821. 127. 69. Nevin, 2000. 42. See note 38. (Washington, D.C.: Economic Policy Institute, January 28, 2013). This article depicts the intervention strategy of two faculty members on a dysfunctional student council in a residential college setting. The employment-to-population ratio of African American men age 2024 was below 50 percent in early 2014, the lowest rate for any demographic group. Of the many social class characteristics known to depress outcomes, this report deals with five: challenged home intellectual environments, single parenthood, irregular parental work schedules, inadequate health care access, and exposure to environmental lead. The disparities are likely greater now, after the weak recovery for lower-income families from the recession, than they were in 2003. McLanahan et al., 2010. See note 30. 3 (2009): 11134. Magnuson and Duncan, 2014. Report of Advisory Committee on Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention, Blood Lead Levels in Children Aged 15 YearsUnited States, 19992010, Issue Brief: Childhood Lead Exposure and Educational Outcomes, Focus on After-School Time for Violence Prevention, Making the Case: A Fact Sheet on Children and Youth in Out-of-School Time, Elizabeth Warren to Help Propose Senate Bill to Tackle Part-Time Schedules. Children who are black, from very low-income families, living in older housing, or enrolled in Medicaid are more than twice as likely to have dangerous blood lead levels as children who are white, from families with higher incomes, who live in housing constructed more recently, and who are not enrolled in Medicaid. Because characteristics of lower-class status overlap and may well be interdependent, available data do not permit the isolation of any one. Isabel V. Sawhill, Generation Unbound: Drifting Into Sex and Parenthood Without Marriage (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2014, pp. A few states require lead screening at school entry, and Medicaid requires it for all enrolled children at 12 years of age. Advertisement Previous Advertisement The Strathmore University Student Council is established in accordance with the University Statute XXXIX. Washington, DC 20005 9. 23. Thus, educators should, as educators, be vocal advocates for policies that reduce poverty and address other characteristics of lower-class status.aBut educators can do more, seizing opportunities to coordinate school improvement with community services that ameliorate socioeconomic disadvantageservices such as early childhood care and education, nurse home-visiting programs, after-school and summer opportunities, school-based health centers, and sponsorship of community lead cleanup. Therefore, this study was conducted to identify psychosocial problems among school going adolescents in . White parents consistently reported greater frequency than black parents. These programs help schoolchildren develop critical thinking and cultural experiences that support success. Economists, sociologists, and developmental psychologists have consistently concluded that background characteristics strongly shape cognitive and behavioral outcomes.1 When school improvement is not complemented by policies to narrow social class differences, students chances of success are greatly diminished. 85. See note 17. The other seems to be that data showing a greater harmful effect from night than from evening or rotating shift work results from the experience of two-parent families where parents organize their schedules so that when one is working, the other is available to supervise children. See note 3. Expand Head Start to enable all low-income parents to enroll children at age 3, and expand half-day Head Start to full day (less than half of all Head Start centers are full day). Newsroom Lambert, Fugiel, and Henly, 2014. 125. No influence is fully determinative. As we have explained, social and economic characteristics described in this report interact. 48. Kantor, 2014. Table 5 compares the economic circumstances of various family structures. 84. Lauren K. Wolf, The Crimes of Lead, Chemical and Engineering News 92, no. 8. 26. Econometric studies that identify the effect of a particular characteristic by holding others constant are valuable, but no study controls for all, and few control for very many. Waldfogel, Craigie, and Brooks-Gunn, 2010. Susan J. Lambert, Peter J. Fugiel, and Julia R. Henly, Precarious Work Schedules Among Early-Career Employees in the U.S.: A National Snapshot, Research Brief, University of Chicago, Employment Instability, Family Well-Being, and Social Policy Network, August 27, 2014. See note 92. See note 58. - Presides over all meetings for your Student Council - Prepares an agenda for all meetings with the help of the advisor - Vote only in the case of a tie - Perform any duties assigned by the. BackgroundRecently, schools have drawn attention as dominant factors for psychosocial development of students. Preschoolers whose mothers work non-standard schedules lose from 10 to 12 percentile points in a normal distribution of preschoolers negative behavior (e.g., depression, anxiety, withdrawal, aggression).68, Each additional nighttime hour that low-income African American mothers work is associated with a decrease in their preschoolers positive behavior (e.g., being playful); the preschoolers of mothers working full eight-hour night shifts lose 15 percentile points in a normal behavioral distribution.69, Teachers of schoolchildren whose parents work variable schedules rate these children as less engaged, more aggressive, and impulsive.70, Children age 13 and 14 whose mothers and/or fathers work night shifts are more likely to engage in risky behavior (e.g., smoking, consuming alcohol, delinquency, sex), and are more likely to be depressed. Zhang, 2013. 72. See note 99. See note 39. This report describes how social class characteristics plausibly depress achievement and suggests policies to address them. 93. Teenagers, especially boys, in single-parent households are more likely to be unsupervised after school.48, Single mothers are also more likely to smoke cigarettes and use illicit drugs during pregnancy, receive inadequate prenatal care, and have low-birthweight babies, a well-established predictor of poor cognitive and behavioral outcomes.49 A national survey, the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (FFCWS) of the late 1990s, found nearly 8 percent of unwed mothers drinking heavily, four times the married mothers rate.50, Single parents lower incomes also entail greater likelihood of living in poor neighborhoods with more disorder and crime that cause children stress.51 Single parents themselves are more stressed.52 Mothers with greater stress are less emotionally supportive of children and employ less consistent and harsher discipline. 11. Today, when remains of lead pollution from gasoline, along with lead paint in poorly maintained residences, are the chief sources of lead, disadvantaged children in older and congested urban areas are most affected. It is in single-mother families that shift work is most strongly associated with delinquent behavior.81, Health differences exacerbate social class outcome gaps. Richard Rothstein (rrothstein@epi.org) is a research associate of the Economic Policy Institute. Henderson Jr, D.A. David O. Carpenter and Rick Nevin, Environmental Causes of Violence, Physiology and Behavior 99, no. 80. In fact, higher lead exposure in early childhood has an even greater relationship to the non-cognitive outcomes of teenagers than to those of younger children. The ECLS-K definition of SES also fails to capture other important social class characteristics that are important for understanding differences in child outcomescharacteristics such as single parenthood, the overall economic circumstances of ones neighborhood, or other factors. elements of a social system, such as a subgroup, a role, or a norm, have a "function" if they add to the fulfillment of one or more of the social needs of that system.7 An element of a social system has a "dysfunc-tion" if it hinders the fulfillment of one or more of the system's needs. See note 37. Stacy B. Ehrlich, Julia A. Gwynn, Amber Stitziel Pareja, Elaine M. Allensworth, Paul Moore, Sanja Jagesic, and Elizabeth Sorice, Preschool Attendance in Chicago Public Schools, Research Report, Chicago: University of Chicago Consortium on Chicago School Research, May 2014, at p. 28, Table 4, Figure 13. 56. The number of years fathers work nights before childrens fifth birthdays predicts increased sexual activity for the children when they reach adolescence. Kimberly Howard and Richard V. Reeves, The Marriage Effect: Money or Parenting? Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, September 4, 2014. But it seems apparent that children with limited access are more likely to be sick and absent from school. Examples of unhealthy behavior within families may include situations wherein a family member, parent, or caregiver: 2. 35. Children and adolescents whose parents work non-standard hours have more physical health problems that, in turn, are associated with poorer academic outcomes. David Grissmer, Kevin J. Grimm, Sophie M. Aiyer, William M. Murrah, and Joel S. Steele, Fine Motor Skills and Early Comprehension of the World: Two New School Readiness Indicators, Developmental Psychology 46, no. Correlations can suggest theories of causation for which plausible pathways may be explored. 57. 34) My Tie: Have a dinner party with all the council members. Authoritative, up-to-date data on the living standards of American workers. Han, 2005. Table 4 shows average parental education by family structure. There are two plausible explanations for the excess harm attributable to night shifts. . Tweets by @EconomicPolicy FFCWS found that 36 percent of unmarried fathers had prison records, five times the share for married fathers. Han, Miller, and Waldfogel, 2010. This option is more available to parents who are married, are older, have higher maternal education, and have higher family income. Barry M. Popkin, Anna Maria Siega-Riz, and Pamela S. Haines, A Comparison of Dietary Trends Among Racial and Socioeconomic Groups in the United States, New England Journal of Medicine 335, no. 10 (2013): 116. Han and Miller, 2009. Young adulthood: lives independently and has college degree or income 250% of poverty Social dysfunction of the student council can be reduced by building trust among members, planning activities well in advance. Children of single parents also have worse behavioral outcomes.40 Table 6 summarizes results from a nationally representative 1995 survey. Single mothers are more depressed and more likely to abuse children, causing worse outcomes for children themselves.53, Frequent home moves also cause childhood stress, from loss of friends and from instructional discontinuity. Contact us 16. Lower-middle-class children (those whose families are in the second income quartile) whose mothers have worked non-standard shifts for from one to four years have close to twice the odds of being overweight at age 13 or 14 as children from economically similar families whose mothers do not work non-standard shifts.72. to represent the pupils' interests and present the pupils' point Of view to the authorities Because of the activities that the council made the students start to show-off and develop their skill They United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2013. 1 (2009): 3649. David L. Olds, JoAnn Robinson, Lisa Pettitt, Dennis W. Luckey, John Holmberg, Rosanna K. Ng, Kathy Isacks, Karen Sheff, and Charles R. Henderson Jr., Effects of Home Visits by Paraprofessionals and by Nurses: Age 4 Follow-Up Results of a Randomized Trial, Pediatrics 114, no. Duncan and Magnuson, 2011, online appendix Table 3.A5 and Table 3.A6. Table 10 shows shares of hourly paid workers, particularly working parents, who receive little advance notice of weekly hours, making earnings unpredictable. We next review the plausible pathways by which the characteristic influences youths outcomesi.e., how these predictions might reflect causality. 91. 5 (2005): 100817. !function(d,s,id){var js,fjs=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0];if(!d.getElementById(id)){js=d.createElement(s);js.id=id;js.src="//platform.twitter.com/widgets.js";fjs.parentNode.insertBefore(js,fjs);}}(document,"script","twitter-wjs"); EPI is an independent, nonprofit think tank that researches the impact of economic trends and policies on working people in the United States. 27. 25. During the five years of the FFCWS, one-quarter of unmarried mothers lived with a new partner, and one-fifth had a child with a new partner. See note 17. Data limitations also preclude discussion of Native Americans and other disadvantaged minorities. 3 (2009): 289305. Duncan and Magnuson, 2011. After 1970, environmental lead steadily plummeted. ECLS-K: 2011 also surveyed parents about literacy activitiesreading aloud, telling stories, doing artconducted with their entering kindergartners. Amato, 2005. At first glance this empirical result seems to be counterintuitive, because supervision of adolescents is most necessary in the after-school and evening hours. See note 104. Weininger and Lareau, 2009. Where hazardous levels exist, housing code enforcement, home repair subsidies, even demolition are appropriate to ensure that children live in lead-safe housing. 2. See note 16. 2 (2005): 294. This study sought to assess the prevalence of psychosocial dysfunction and its association with family-related factors among adolescent Nepali students.MethodsTaking 787 adolescent students from 13 schools of Hetauda municipality, we . Jobs at EPI We thank Calum Provan for editorial assistance. Young African American men as a group are less employable because they are discriminatorily incarcerated at very high rates. Waldfogel, Craigie, and Brooks-Gunn, 2010. 89. Although about one in four children lived with a mother alone in 2013, twice as many had lived with a mother alone at some time during childhood.31. For physician-population ratios in low-income neighborhoods to grow, medical schools should expand to graduate more physicians, and incentives should be revised to encourage new physicians to specialize in pediatrics or primary care. See note 64. Highlighting the socioeconomic impediments to student achievement does not make excuses for the achievement gap, as some advocates glibly, and defensively, charge.2 Rather, it provides explanations. See note 58. Other research finds that parents on public assistance, unemployed, or with less than a high school education typically provide less cognitive stimulation to children.11 When reading aloud, lower-class parents provide less guidance and are less strategic in building on childrens prior knowledge to expand it.12, By age 6, white children have typically spent 1,300 more hours engaged in conversations with adults than black children. Margaret R. Burchinal, Joanne E. Roberts, Susan A. Zeisel, and Stephanie J. Rowley, Social Risk and Protective Factors for African American Childrens Academic Achievement and Adjustment During the Transition to Middle School, Developmental Psychology44, no. Variable schedules prevent parents from enrolling in school themselves, an activity that might enable them to provide better intellectual environments and models of educational aspiration for their children.80, In general, the harmful effects of working non-standard schedules seem to be more pronounced for children of parents who work night shifts (starting after 9 p.m.) than for children of parents who work other non-standard schedules (evening shifts beginning after 2 p.m., rotating or variable shifts). The most important functions of a student council 1 - They work as a congress The college may have a president, a vice president, a secretary, a treasurer, a law clerk, a fundraiser, and representatives of the girls and boys. Daniel P. Miller and Wen-Jui Han, Maternal Nonstandard Work Schedules and Adolescent Overweight,American Journal of Public Health98, no. Parents with less education have fewer educational interactions with their children at home. For teenagers, delaying a first birth improves their childrens circumstances as adults in terms of annual incomes, likelihood of depression, and chances of single parenthood.43. Reyes, 2014. Julia R. Henly and Susan J. Lambert,Schedule Flexibility and Unpredictability in Retail: Implications for Employee Work-Life Outcomes, Working Paper, University of Chicago Work Scheduling Study, July 2010, at pp. Some lower-social-class children will defy averages and have higher achievement than their peers, despite challenging social and economic circumstances. For example, asthmatic children who do not have inhalers are more likely to be awake at night, and come to school more drowsy and inattentive. Student council calls for many responsibilities and opportunities including, service projects for the community, planning a variety of events for the school, and planning major events such as homecoming and prom. See note 39. 81. Student Council Overview. Latent dysfunctions refer to the unintended actions or consequences that are hurtful to society. Get Access References See note 98. See note 58. Learning disabilities, as a "differentiation" that occurs during the first school year of a child, have serious psychological, educational and social implications in their life [1-3].The myths that have prevailed over dyslexia and many other special learning disabilities, inadequate information from both parents and teachers and the refusal of many parents to accept their child's . White parents are only two-thirds as likely to be assigned non-daytime shifts as minority parents. College-educated parents have non-daytime shifts one-third as often as parents with high school degrees or less. Scott A. Shipman, Jia Lan, Chiang-hua Chang, and David C. Goodman, Geographic Maldistribution of Primary Care for Children, Pediatrics 127, no. Student Council Constitution The Institution Students' Council shall consist of the following members, namely: 1. For the characteristics reviewed below, where recent research provides reliable information, we discuss: We conclude by reviewing practical reforms to narrow differences in these characteristics that would, in turn, likely help narrow outcome gaps. : National Institute on Out-of-School Time, Wellesley Centers for Women, Wellesley College, January 2006. This lesson will focus on. Because characteristics of lower-class status overlap and may be interdependent, available data do not permit the isolation of any one. Ron Haskins, Marriage, Parenthood, and Public Policy, National Affairs 19, Spring (2014): 5572, at 60. All the boys bring By 2014, the share of births that were births to unmarried teenagers had dropped to 6 percent, and it is reasonable to assume that these teenagers too will have some subsequent children as unmarried adults. Inadequate pay in jobs available to African American men living in urban ghettos encourages African American women, when they have children, to do so as single parents. It focuses on five characteristics for purposes of illustration: These are not the only characteristics that depress outcomes, nor are they necessarily the most important. Donate. These children will be of school age in the years to come. 11 (November 1998): 74550. Students are most likely to become perpetrators or victims of crime in the first few hours after school; the juvenile crime rate triples between the hours of 3:00 and 6:00 p.m. Out-of-school programs help avoid these risks.120.
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